拉撒路范文

時間:2023-03-15 17:46:05

導語:如何才能寫好一篇拉撒路,這就需要搜集整理更多的資料和文獻,歡迎閱讀由公務員之家整理的十篇范文,供你借鑒。

篇1

入選理由:被形容為“歐洲的耶路撒冷”,三種對立的宗教并存,擁有多座現成的戰爭紀念碑。

候選城市:西貢(Saigon)、圣弗朗西斯科(San Francisco)、圣馬力諾(San Marino)、圣地亞哥(Santiago)、圣保羅(Sao Paulo)、首爾(Seoul)、上海(Shanghai)、設拉子(Shiraz)、新加坡(Singapore)、斯科普里(Skopje)、索非亞(Sofia)、斯德哥爾摩(Stockholm)、蘇伊士(Suez)、悉尼(Sydney)。

波斯尼亞和黑塞哥維那共和國,是一個面積只有浙江省一半的歐洲新國家。不過,我乘坐的國際列車從該國北端駛入以后,搖搖晃晃地走了七八個小時,依然沒有到達中部的首都薩拉熱窩。鐵路兩側盡是低矮的山谷和溪流,間或可見清真寺的尖塔露出村頭,黃色的磚墻被綠色的莊稼和雜亂的樹木環繞著。車上旅客稀少,僅有的幾位也因為語言不通而無法交流。黃昏時分,火車終于抵達了目的地。一個嚴峻的考驗隨即降臨,因為我出門旅行向來不預定旅店。

很快,乘客們便沒了蹤影,車站廣場上只留下一男一女兩個中年人,他們都是拉旅客投宿之人。當我發現車站上的游客問訊處已經關門以后,只好把目光轉向他們。那位男士頗有氣質,且會說較為流利的英語,因此一開始我就被他吸引。而那女人只會說點德語,其外貌酷似前網球明星格拉芙,只是臉上多了一些皺紋。正當我準備跟那位男士去他的旅店時,“格拉芙”突然從包里掏出一個塑料封皮的筆記本。

還沒等我反應過來,“格拉芙”已經打開她的筆記本,上面歪歪斜斜地寫滿了各種語言的文字。原來,這是一本旅客登記簿。我翻到最新的一頁,上面居然有頭一天登記的一位日本游客的信息。在那一瞬間,我做出了選擇,跟著“格拉芙”走了。出門在外,安全總是第一位的。我們一起搭乘沿著河岸行走的唯一的有軌電車,去她在城西的家。當我聽到車頭鈴鐺的聲音時,兩旁的路燈也亮了,我感覺世界突然溫暖了許多。

薩拉熱窩位于狹窄的特雷貝維奇山谷,城中有一條叫“米利亞茨卡”的河流穿過。附近留有新石器時代的文化遺址,中世紀時,哥特人和斯拉夫人先后來此定居,而隨著15世紀后期土耳其人的侵入,薩拉熱窩發展成為貿易商人和穆斯林的文化堡壘。不過,來自亞德里亞海邊的商人也在此建立了拉丁區。因此,至今這里信仰伊斯蘭教的居民仍只有―半。

19世紀中葉,薩拉熱窩曾是奧斯曼帝國的行政中心之一,這一地位在奧匈帝國占領期仍保持不變。1914年6月28日,波斯尼亞的塞爾維亞民族主義者普林西普在薩拉熱窩刺殺了奧匈帝國皇儲斐迪南及其妻子,從而引發了第一次世界大戰。戰爭結束后,波斯尼亞宣布加入南斯拉夫,直到1992年,才再次獨立出來。不過,新一輪的內戰又因此而爆發。

盡管如此,我腦子里首先想到的卻是一部少年時代反復看過的南斯拉夫電影《瓦爾特保衛薩拉熱窩》。這部影片講的是第二次世界大戰即將結束時,德國駐巴爾干半島的部隊準備撤退,被瓦爾特領導的游擊隊攔截的故事。

“格拉芙”住在一套二居室里,家里只有她和母親兩人,客廳里的兩張沙發就成為她的出租床。我到達那天,那位日本青年還在,可是由于他不講英語,我們無法交流。他屬于成千上萬孤獨的日本旅行者之一。

第二天一早,日本青年就背起行囊出發了。他走后,我也起身,在窗臺上觀察附近的民居。由于種族之間的沖突,塞族人和穆斯林、克族人分居在兩側山坡上。在薩拉熱窩,甚至連汽車站也分成兩個,以免引發沖突。后來,我來到一座建于16世紀的大清真寺,發現地上跪拜著無數穿著講究的男男女女。他們用懷疑的眼神看著我這個異鄉人,那種目光將我驅趕到了大廳之外。

篇2

通往拉薩的鐵路全國只有一條,即青藏鐵路。

青藏鐵路被譽為"天路",起于青海省西寧市,途經格爾木市、昆侖山口、沱沱河沿,翻越唐古拉山口,進入西藏自治區安多、那曲、當雄、羊八井、拉薩。

青藏鐵路全長1956公里,是重要的進藏路線,被譽為天路,是世界上海拔最高、在凍土上路程最長的高原鐵路,是中國新世紀四大工程之一,2013年9月入選"全球百年工程",是世界鐵路建設史上的一座豐碑。

青藏鐵路上車站總數共56個,主要車站有西寧站、格爾木站、拉薩站等。

(來源:文章屋網 )

篇3

這個月,我讀了《把鐵路修到拉薩去》。這篇文章講的是西部建設者們在自然環境惡劣的情況下,用智慧和力量克服了一個個世界的難題,創下了世界鐵路建設奇跡,就是世界海拔最高隧道——風火山隧道建設的經過。

讀完全文,我被鐵路工人那種勇于吃苦的精神感動了,他們在建設風火山隧道時,遇到了三種極大的困難:一是凍土層;二是惡劣的天氣;三是極度缺氧;面是些困難在鐵路工人眼里就像小沙子一樣。最終他們克服了寒冷、風雪、雷電等氣候,用智慧與力量完成了風火山隧道。

我不禁感嘆:青藏鐵路真是一條奉獻路啊!在海拔5000米的無人區,高寒缺氧,氧氣含量不到平原的一半,死神的手就靠近了鐵路工人們,而他們犧牲的不僅僅是健康,還隨時可能會被死神抓入手中。

媽媽也說:海拔那么高,鐵路工人都能這樣,我們大家更應該好好學習,讓祖國變得更加富強。

五年級:星星點燈00

篇4

關鍵詞:旅游文化街區;功能;演化;八廓街

1.研究背景

劉頌、王雪君認為“旅游文化街區”,又稱“文化休閑街區”,它往往是依托街道(區)原有的歷史文化特色和在城市功能分區中的作用,賦予一定的文化主題而形成的[1]。筆者認為旅游文化街區是旅游與文化街區相結合的具體表現形式,將文化產業與旅游產業相結合,傳承文化街區的歷史和文化,拓展文化街區功能在旅游中的作用,促進旅游業的發展。夏健、王勇認為居住性歷史文化街區的功能重置要做到“功能保全”,“生活真實延續”,“完善服務功能”三項基本原則[2]。蘇靜等人認為城市文化街區具有“儲存文化,流傳文化,創造文化”這三個基本功能[3]。蔣其平等人認為在平常轉經道作為交通空間而存在為人們提供正常交通,當舉行宗教活動或者有宗教行為時,轉經道就完全恢復其宗教職能,并且具有了嚴格的宗教職能[4]。由此可以看出,八廓街具有兩項基本功能:交通功能與宗教功能,筆者認為這也是八廓街的傳統功能。拉薩市旅游文化街區八廓街位于圍繞大昭寺為中心的市中心,是老城區的重要組成部分,因而八廓街這一旅游文化街區同樣具有居住,宗教,民族商業,交通等傳統功能。胡海燕、圖登克珠等對拉薩市老城區的主要功能進行分析得出:在一千多年的歷史發展過程中,老城區逐漸形成了居住,宗教,民族商業,旅游商業等多種社會功能[5]。隨著旅游業的發展,八廓街的功能在不斷演變,產生了以旅游業為紐帶的游憩、休閑、體驗,文化等新興功能。

2.研究對象簡介

公元七世紀,法王松贊干布統一青藏高原,定都邏些(即現在的拉薩),先迎娶了尼泊爾尺尊公主,帶來了八歲釋迦牟尼等身佛像,緊接著迎娶大唐文成公主,帶來了十二歲釋迦牟尼等身佛像。至此,印度佛教和內地漢傳佛教傳入青藏高原與本土宗教相融合,形成藏傳佛教并在吐蕃迅速發展。在藏傳佛教中有很多祈禱方式,如:轉經、掛經幡、堆瑪尼堆、煨桑等,其中轉經是最常見的祈禱方式之一,八廓街漢語意為“中轉經道”,即受藏傳佛教的影響而形成的。八廓街是藏文的漢語音譯,漢語意為“中圈”,引申為“中轉經道”。又名八角街,原因是在四川的美食調料中,有一種叫八角的調料,在拉薩居住的漢族人中四川人占了很大比例,而四川人對“廓”與“角”的發音很相似,久而久之,又名之為“八角”。它在歷史上曾是拉薩古城的中心,是拉薩歷史的見證。

3.八廓街的傳統功能

3.1 宗教功能

大昭寺原是松贊干布供奉其尼泊爾裔赤尊公主帶來的釋迦牟尼八歲等身佛像所建。后來唐朝金城公主嫁入吐蕃,將文成公主進藏時帶來的釋迦牟尼十二歲等身佛像移入大昭寺。在藏傳佛教向心宇宙和轉經這種特殊的祈禱方式的影響下,在拉薩逐漸形成了古老的三條轉經道,分別是囊廓、八廓、林廓。其中八廓街在2009年被授予首批“中國歷史文化名街”榮譽稱號,也是享譽國內外的名街。受藏傳佛教的影響,在八廓街行走有著明確的方向,即圍繞著大昭寺以順時針方向旋轉。即使你是初到拉薩的游客,看到這樣的情景,你也會情不自禁的隨著這股人流按順時針方向行走。綜上所述,從八廓街的產生到今天,宗教功能一直保持著不變。

3.2 居住功能

在吐蕃王朝時期,八廓街就有了居住功能。公元6世紀,吐蕃贊普松贊干布在決定修建大昭寺后,為了親自監督工程的進展,他率領倫臣大相和嬪妃們住到了湯窩湖附近。為了表達對王的尊敬人們在湖的北面,東面,東南和西南四處修建了房舍,供松贊干布和臣相嬪妃們住,這是八廓街最早的四個宮殿,也是八廓街最早的一批建筑[6]。15世紀后,眾多佛教信徒遷居大昭寺周圍生活,逐漸形成了大量民居、旅館,后來又逐步發展成為貴族官邸及商人住宅集中之地,如平措康薩、索康、林倉、赤江、邦達倉等,都是有幾百年歷史的宅院。和平解放以前,八廓街里既有政府的辦事機構,又住著貴族,僧人,學者,也住著工匠,鐵匠,等藝人和平民[7]。至今,八廓街的居住功能仍未改變。2012年12月拉薩市啟動了總投資約15億元的老城區保護工程,以改善老城區的安全狀況和居民生活環境。2013年6月基本竣工,標志著八廓街的基礎設施不斷完善,為當地居民的居住,生活提供更多的便利。

3.3 傳統商貿功能

自古以來,八廓街就是拉薩城的主要商貿中心,而面對現代文明的進程,其商貿市井氣息逐漸減弱,但依然可見其傳統的商貿功能。八廓街從坐東朝西的大昭寺正門前按順時針方向,依次有八廓西街、八廓北街、八廓東街、八廓南街。各個方位的街區中商鋪分布較多,主要經營具有特色的民族手工藝品與藥材,同時也存在一些商鋪經營特色小吃、羊毛紡織、服裝鞋帽等生意。除此之外,住宿業在八廓街也占有一定的比重,一些家庭旅館、青年旅社也隨處可見。

3.4 交通功能

八廓街的交通功能貫穿整個街區,里面有各方位的小巷與八廓街相連,與外界溝通。在平常,八廓街作為一個交通空間而存在,供人們日常交通使用,但每逢宗教節日,信徒都會在八廓街沿順時針的方向圍繞著大昭寺朝拜,這時,八廓街有著特殊的交通功能。但隨著旅游業的發展,八廓街有限的交通空間也不能滿足當地居民和游客的需求。

4.八廓街的新興功能

隨著旅游業的發展,八廓街在傳統功能的基礎上演化出許多新的功能,如游憩、休閑、體驗,文化等功能。

4.1 游憩功能

筆者將從游憩空間方面著手來闡述八廓街的游憩功能。吳必虎、董莉娜等人認為城市公共游憩空間是處于城市或者城市近郊的“游憩者可進入的”具有休息、交往、鍛煉、娛樂、購物、觀光、旅游等游憩功能的開放空間、建筑物及設施[8]。拉薩市經濟中心,八廓街是拉薩的游憩中心。到拉薩來的游客,八廓街是必到之處。八廓街具有特色、藏民族特點的碉堡房,傳統手工藝品(如藏刀、木碗、藏毯)、女士藏裝、以及穿戴藏裝時的相關飾品,同時具有完善的基礎設施,能夠滿足游客的旅游需求。由于經濟屬于跨越型發展經濟模式,生產傳統藏族手工藝品的生產力比較落后,不能夠滿足現階段旅游業發展需求。

4.2 休閑功能

隨著社會主義市場經濟的發展,競爭越來越激烈,快節奏的生活使大都市的人們超負荷的工作著。正相反,拉薩是中國幸福指數最高的城市,被譽為“幸福拉薩”,地處拉薩市中心的八廓街也是幸福拉薩的重要組成部分。隨著旅游業的發展,八廓街的休閑功能日益凸顯。筆者將從以下三個方面進行論述:休閑主體的廣泛性

在八廓街,除了旅游者以外,還有信徒、當地居民、外來人口、僧人等群體。不同的群體來八廓街的目的不盡相同,但都是八廓街休閑生活的重要組成部分。

休閑方式的異質性

對于朝圣者來說,圍繞著大昭寺轉八廓街是一種修行;對游客來說,轉八廓街是購物、游覽、觀光、體驗;對于當地居民來說,八廓街是一個進行商貿休閑的理想之處。

休閑活動的多樣性

在八廓街,你可以欣賞具有雪域高原特色的藏式碉堡房,你可以購買具有當地居民的傳統手工藝品,你也可以體驗豐富的藏餐文化等等多彩的旅游活動。

4.3 體驗功能

需求刺激著消費,同時也引領著消費方向。正因為如此,生產適銷對路的產品,與市場需求接軌,是滿足多元化消費需求的一方面,但是創新是一個民族進步的靈魂,我們可以換一個角度來想,那就是企業產品去引領消費方向,刺激消費需求。八廓街有豐富的傳統旅游資源,在這里,可以體驗和感受藏民族的民風、民俗,可以體驗藏文化。地道的藏族民風、民俗,獨特的藏文化,正是國內、國際游客來所向往的。而目前八廓街的旅游資源并沒有充分的得到發揮,只做到根據旅游者的消費需求來生產旅游產品,而沒有真正做到生產的旅游產品讓消費者去參與、去體驗、去感受。筆者認為旅游目的地應該把旅游市場需求為導向和生產的旅游產品引領市場需求并行。

4.4 文化功能

首先,大昭寺是擁有一千三百多年歷史的拉薩古城的中心,八廓街的興起是拉薩城市興起的起點,因此,八廓街最傳統的文化功能就是宗教文化功能,具有明顯的藏傳佛教特色。其次,八廓街是最具有民族特色的文化街區。在八廓街,除漢族以外,生活著藏族、回族、蒙古族等其他少數民族,其中(各民族所占的比例)在這里,真正體現了“大雜居,小聚居”的民族居住特點。他們在生產、生活、語言、穿著方式等各個方面相互影響,相互滲透。實現了“漢族離不開少數民族,少數民族離不開漢族,少數民族離不開少數民族”的民族大團結。最后八廓街是唯一一條以藏餐為主的,擁有豐富的藏餐美食文化的旅游文化名街。其中(有多少家注冊藏餐餐廳,主要經營的藏餐是什么),

5.八廓街傳統功能向新興功能演化的原因分析

夏健、王勇提出在居住性歷史文化街區保護和更新中,功能保全是生活真實性延續的載體。[9]筆者認為,八廓街傳統功能向新興功能演化正如矛盾的兩個方面,新興功能離不開傳統功能,傳統功能也離不開新興功能,傳統功能是新興功能得以產生和發展的前提和基礎,新興功能是對傳統功能的繼承和發展。因此,八廓街由傳統功能向新興功能演化的原因有以下三點。

5.1 經濟因素

經濟發展的要求,由傳統的產品經濟、服務經濟向體驗經濟的轉變,要求旅游目的地對旅游產品的開發進行創新,轉變傳統的旅游產品開發模式,適應旅游經濟發展的要求。

5.2 旅游產業戰略因素

旅游業發展的要求:將建設成為重要世界旅游目的地的定位就是要樹立優秀形象、打造硬環境、加快培育市場、提高市場競爭力。八廓街由傳統功能向新興功能的演化可以實現文化街區的可持續發展、拉薩文化的傳承、城市風貌特色的形成以及探索旅游目的地的建設問題。

5.3 旅游與文化融合的促動

旅游者消費需求轉變的要求,多元化、個性化的消費需求的出現,要求旅游目的地提供多元化的旅游產品,要求旅游從業人員提供更人性化的服務,實現食、住、行、游、購、娛

“一條龍”的服務。例如以旅游者和信教徒一起轉八廓街為例,旅游者轉八廓街是為了體驗這種宗教文化,而信教徒則是為了修行,盡管二者目的不一樣,卻實現了融合。

6.結語

筆者對拉薩市旅游文化街區八廓街的傳統功能和新興功能分別進行了論述,以及分析了由傳統功能演變為新興功能之后,在旅游快速發展過程中存在的諸多弊端,筆者并沒有提出解決措施,非常遺憾。鑒于本人能力和時間的限制,收集到的一手資料和二手資料有限,文章不足之處,請讀者給予指正。

參考文獻:

[1]劉頌,王雪君.上海旅游文化街區的個性打造:[J].上海城市規劃,2006,(6):42-22

[2]夏健,王勇.從重置到重生:居住性歷史文化街區生活真實性的保護[J].城市發展研究,2010,2(17):134-139.

[3]蘇靜,陸林.城市文化街區功能演化研究[J].人文地理,2010,2(25):70-73.

[4]蔣其平,劉要收,周滿,晉美.對拉薩老城轉經道的認識與思考[J].南方建筑,2013,(1):32-35.

[5]胡海燕,圖登克珠,次仁德吉.基于功能演變視角的歷史文化街區保護與發展研究――以拉薩老城區為例[J].大學學報,2010,3(25):15-19.

[6]益西曲珍.論八廓街形成的原因[D].大學,2010.

[7]胡海燕,圖登克珠,次仁德吉.基于功能演變視角的歷史文化街區保護與發展研究――以拉薩老城區為例.[J].大學學報,2010,3(25):15-19.

篇5

La salud de millones de publicar el anuncio de los resultados, la compa?ía espera que el beneficio neto en el a?o 2017, en comparación con el mismo periodo del a?o anterior, un incremento de 16,36 millones de yuanes - 17.33  millones de euros, con un crecimiento interanual del 362.51%-383.92%.Durante el período del informe, la empresa filial de Holding del Grupo franc (000513) la transferencia completa el 100% de sus acciones de la filial de Zhuhai Victoria Star Industrial Co., Ltd, el 17 de julio de 2017.El  aumento de la transferencia de alrededor de 15.74 millones el beneficio neto de la empresa, finalmente los beneficios comerciales con datos anuales de auditoría prevalecerá.

El beneficio neto de 85%-115% Tech: Tsuen plata antes de 2017

Ruta de la plata de alta tecnología (300087) anuncio, la compa?ía espera que  los beneficios netos por 568 millones en 2017 - 6600 millones, con un crecimiento interanual del 85%-115%.Ying - en el mismo periodo del a?o pasado. 3067.72 millones de beneficio.Las causas principales de crecimiento de los resultados anuales de la empresa el buen rendimiento de las principales razas de 2017 el mercado, las ventas alcanzan lo previsto.

Hengfeng herramientas: beneficio neto 30% - 60% antes de 2017

Hengfeng herramientas (300488) anuncio, la compa?ía espera que los beneficios netos para el a?o 2017 9703.10 millones - 1,19 millones de dólares, un aumento de 30% - 60%.Ying - en el mismo periodo del a?o pasado.  7463.92 millones de beneficio.

Recursos: 27%-59% íntimo beneficio neto antes de 2017

Envez de recursos (000975) anuncio, la compa?ía espera que el beneficio neto de 2017 para 28.000 millones - de 35.000 millones, lo que representa un crecimiento interanual de: 27.48%-59.35%.Durante el período del informe, la compa?ía holding de las ventas de la filial de producción de Mongolia Interior  Yulong Mining Co., con un incremento interanual, también por el plomo, los factores que influyen en el aumento de los precios de metal de zinc, su beneficio neto aumentó en comparación con el a?o anterior.

Haichen Pharmaceutical: Antes de 2017, en beneficio de más de 4

Hisun Pharmaceutical (300584) anuncio, la compa?ía espera que los ingresos  de explotación total de 455 millones de dólares para 2017, un aumento  interanual del beneficio neto para 62.03%; 6468.81 millones - 6694.99  millones, con un crecimiento interanual del 43%-48%.

篇6

*Corresponding author.

Received 23 January 2012; accepted 23 March 2012.

Abstract

This paper explores the influence of the conception of love in Plato’s Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas through a comparative analysis methodology that highlights the shared thread and influence between Plato’s Symposium and Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas. The study mainly focuses on showing the readers how the Greek concept of the spiritual and heavenly love is highly praised and favored by Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas because it is an everlasting and healthy kind of love.

Key words: Earthly love; Spiritual love; Divine love; Greek concept of love; Plato’s Symposium; Virgil’s Aeneid; The French Eneas; Platonic love; Absolute love

Hassan Ali Abdullah Al-Momani (2012). The Influence of the Conception of Love in Plato’s Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French Eneas. Studies in Literature and Language, 4(2), -0. Available from URL: /index.php/sll/article/view/j.sll.1923156320120402.1045

DOI: /10.3968/j.sll.1923156320120402.1045

There is no subject which has been ever thought of or written about in literature, particularly in poetry, more than the subject of love. Apart from the universal interest of poets in love, the fact remains that almost all human beings, primitive or civilized, must have experienced a kind of love in one way or another. Many great men of letters such as Plato and Ovid tackled the theme of love because it is a vital phenomenon which preoccupies the minds and hearts of men and women as long as there is life on earth.

Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas depict the conception of love from different perspectives, in which there is clear evidence that Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas are highly influenced by the Greek conception of love represented in Plato’s Symposium. In this paper, I will trace this influence through studying both Plato’s Symposium and its influence on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas.

There are some critics who studied the influence of Plato’s Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas depending on the fact that Plato was born before Virgil. Plato, the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, was born in Athens in 428 or 427 B.C.E. to an aristocratic family, wheras Publius Vergilius Maro was born on the 15th of October, 70 B.C.E., near Mantua. Dickinson (2002) claims that the morality of Virgil’s work, especially his ideas of good and evil are derived from the Platonic philosophy. The writer refers to Professor Jackson Knight’s claim that “the golden bough wherewith Aeneas gains entrance to the ‘Spiritual World beyond death’ as a symbolic reference to Plato…As embodied in Virgil’s poetry, the moral ideas are of profound value to Christian and pagan alike: there are the strongest grounds for saying that Virgil is the greatest creative genius of Western civilization” (377). Furthermore, Dickinson thinks that Aeneas was Augustus’ friend: “he was subsidized by him” (377). The critic states that “there is no question that Virgil was influenced by the times he lived in” (377). Finally, Dickinson asks “how can a great artist not be so influenced?” (377).

Additionally, Wardy (2007) claims that Virgil’s Aeneid is indirectly influenced by Plato’s Symposium. He thinks that this influence is represented in the “light of the purported intertextual allusion” (155). He challenges the critics who think that there is no influence of Plato on Virgil. The critic thinks that Virgil does to incorporate his Platonic material in his text. Wardy argues that Virgil “never specifically tosses in a citation or generates an echo for its own sake: for him, writing is rewriting, as he harmoniously or polemically engages with the multiple traditions which he so spectacularly enriches. His encounters with Homer, Hesiod, Callimachus, Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, and others are intricate and subtly ambitious affairs; but his tacit dialogue with Plato is another sort of conversation altogether” (155).

Wardy thinks that Nisus and Euryalus episode in Aeneid IX draws an inspiration from Phaedrus’s speech in Plato’s Symposium. He argues that this relationship is not casual. He describes this similarity by saying: “a part of Symposium is a partial blueprint, model, or template for a section of the Aeneid” (155). Wardy provides a piece of evidence for his conviction that there is an influence of Plato on Virgil through saying: “Plato’s engagement with Homer is anything but superficial; and it is blindingly obvious that this is also true of Virgil’s. Virgil’s recognition and appreciation of the philosopher’s manifold Homeric interests would provide one very sound reason for his thoughtful reworking of Platonic texts. And there are proper grounds for discerning a tighter affiliation with the Symposium” (164). Regarding the influence of Plato’s Symposium on Eneas, it should be stated that this influence is not a direct one, but it is filtered through the Aeneid as we will see in the analysis.

The Greek conception of love can be divided into two kinds, earthly love and divine love, for the Greek mythology and beliefs in the existence of another world are influential. Plato’s belief in a world of ideas, or say his belief in the absolute love, is exceptional because it is natural for a philosopher to find a place for his concept of love within the framework of his systematic theory of ideas.

In this regard, we should differentiate between the three kinds of love in order to better understand the influence of Symposium on Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas. Trentadue (2006) argues that heavenly love in Plato’s Symposium is concerned “with the virtue of our partner”. He uses the fireplace analogy to explain the idea of heavenly love:

Heavenly love can be compared to the fire that occurs when the heavier logs ignite. If we not only have a sufficient quantity of kindling, but also truly care for our partner, it will produce enough heat over a period of time to ignite the heavier logs. The heat of the fire can be compared to the passion from being in love. In this state or condition, and under the right nurturing circumstances (such as warmth, caring, affection, integrity, and open, honest communication between both persons) the heat from being in love can ignite the logs of true love, which will burn for a very long time and provide a constant source of heat, warmth, and beauty. This is heavenly love, and it lasts longer than earthly love (11-12).

Trentadue defines the earthly love as “the desire of the body rather than of the soul”, inwhich this kind of love is not long-lasting and is related to the initial attraction when two lovers fall in love, and then it disappears. The critic provides a very interesting description of this kind of love by comparing it with fire:

A good fire requires a supply of wood, such as logs, and these logs need smaller pieces of wood, known as kindling, to heat the logs sufficiently so they can burn on their own. This kindling ignites readily and burns very hot, but, unfortunately, burns so quickly that the heat it produces is short-lived, much like the attraction of earthly love. This will not lead to a long-lasting fire or a long-lasting relationship (11).

Additionally, Trentadue explains the third kind of love which is the divine love. He claims that divine love is the highest type of love which leads to wisdom. It transcends all the earthly instincts and leads to the divine concepts, such as the existence of God. It is the kind of love that leads us to the end of knowing, “where knowledge becomes divine, is the state of Loving, in which the inherent beauty of all things is made clear. Eastern thought has called this condition Nirvana, and Judeo-Christian beliefs identify it as the universal love of God which extends through all things” (5).

Thus, we notice through looking at the definitions of the different kinds of love in Plato’s Symposium that earthly love is related to the idea of procreation. It is an important kind of love to save the humanity race on the earth. In contrast, the heavenly love is the type which goes beyond the physical appearance and comes from the deep soul. In other words, heavenly love is related to the virtues and harmony between the lovers’ souls. The divine love is the “the highest type of love: one devoid of personal interests that relishes in the success of its object. The greatest love encourages the best practices, characteristics, opportunities, and if at all possible, the best life. This love is necessarily selfless” (5).

The Roman conception of love can also be divided into earthly love and divine love for the Romans, like Greeks, believe in supernatural powers and have their own gods. For example, Venus, the Roman goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, corresponds to Aphrodite, the Greek goddess.

Plato’s Symposium reveals the natural personality of Socrates. It deals with the theme of love which is one of the most important interests of mankind. Probably this theme is closer to literature than philosophy simply because it is a traditional subject handled by almost all poets, old and new.

The term “symposium” has two meanings, old and new. To the Greeks and Romans, it is a drinking together after a banquet party during which a debate over a particular subject occurs. To the modern world, symposium means either a collection of brief articles dealing with an important topic, or a conference at which a certain topic is discussed by many writers or scientists.

Plato’s Symposium is a number of opinions given by many great men of letters and scholars on the art of love. Apollodorus repeats the discourse which he had heard from Aristodemus. Originally, the speeches were delivered at Agathon’s house where a banquet was held on the occasion of his winning of a prize for his first tragedy. The participants were: Phaedrus, Pausanias, Eryximachus, Aristophanes, Agathon, and Socrates. I am going to shed light on each one’s ideology on love and how it can be related to the concept of love in Aeneid and Eneas.

The issue of love has been initiated by Phaedrus and suggested by Eryximachus, a physician who also suggests that too many drinks should not be the features of the party. Phaedrus believes that the god of love is the eldest of the mighty gods and that it has no parents. In order to support his point of view, he quotes both Hesiod and Parenides who affirm that Earth and Love came into being after the Chaos (universe) (41-44).

Phaedrus’s second important argument is that love is “the source of the greatest benefits” to human beings. He believes that love is the source of all virtues and principles of morality. He also asserts that a state whose rulers and subjects love one another would be the best state, and that an army of lovers would overcome the world. Of course, the word “lovers” here is very general (41-44).

The significance of love, says Phaedrus, appears in the behavior of the lover whose life will be at the service of his beloved. He refers to Alcestis and Achilles, the former sacrifices her life for her husband, and the latter retaliates for the death of Patroclus, his lover, by slaying Hector. However, Phaedrus believes that love is the “giver of virtue in life and of happiness after death.”(41-44).

Phaedrus’s conception of love can be noticed in both Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas, in which Aeneas is motivated by his sense of love and loyalty for his people to battle the Greeks. It is true that he is influenced by the will of gods. His love for his people and his willing to found a new race in Italy that will eventually become the Roman Empire is more important. Additionally, Aeneas sacrifices himself for the sake of his people because he shares with them the suffering which motivates him to achieve his goal:

Sorrow too deep to tell, your majesty,

You order me to feel and tell once more:

How the Danaans leveled in the dust

The splendor of our mourned-forever kingdom---

Heartbreaking things I saw with my own eyes

And was myself a part of. Who could tell them,

Even a Myrmidon or Dolopian

Or ruffian of Ulysses, without tears? (II.3-10).

From the previous quotation we notice how Aeneas refers to the shared emotion and suffering between him and his people when he uses the possessive adjective “our”. It is clear that the kind of love Aeneas has for his people is the love of a ruler for his people which implies all senses of devotion and loyalty. Also, the people of Aeneas share with him this feeling of love which is represented by their following him in his battles against the Greeks and in all his decisions. Thus, Aeneas and his people win the battle at the end and rule Italy. They rule Italy because they are, as Phaedrus claims, an army of lovers who can overcome the world.

Additionally, Aeneas’s love for his father Anchises makes him determined to achieve his goal. The influence of his love for his father is clear throughout the poem, in which he says:

Did you suppose, my father,

That I could tear myself away and leave you?

Unthinkable; how could a father say it?

Now if it is please the powers above that nothing

Stand of this great city; if your heart

Is set on adding your own death and ours

To that of Troy, the door’s wide open for it (II. 857-863).

Thus, Aeneas’s ability of leadership is highly influenced by his sense of love for his father who encourages Aeneas to proceed in his quest.

Another influence of Phaedrus in the Aeneid is that Aeneas prefers his love for people to his love for Dido. He leaves her in a sorrowful situation because he has been reminded of his duty towards his people. In other words, Aeneas does not make the choice to leave Dido by himself. Although he indulges in a romance with her, he proceeds in his duty which is to found a new race in Italy. Thus, Aeneas’s love for his people is based on Phaedrus’s claim that a lover’s life will be at the service of his beloved people. As Proce (2006) describes him, Aeneas is “an idyllic Roman hero, who never abandons his “divine” duty. He, in contrast, forsakes his own desire and leaves Dido and Carthage to found what would become Rome. The Aeneid teaches that had Aeneas not followed his duty, Rome would never have existed” (23).

Dido’s love for Aeneas can be related to Phaedrus’s claim, in which she becomes as a slave of her desire for Aeneas. Apart from the claim that her love is sexual for him, she shows herself in the image of a lover who is at the service of her beloved. She abandons the construction of Carthage and indulges in a romance with Aeneas. She tries to be a loyal lover but she is faced with Aeneas’s love for his people and duty.

Proce (2006) describes Dido’s problem by saying that she is “a victim to her own passion. Due to this passion, she neglects her kingdom and forsakes her vow to remain faithful to her recently murdered husband, for a man who ultimately rejects her. Dido’s tragic tale is an example of Augustus’ social reform: it provides instruction to women through criticism of female behavior. Virgil draws attention to Dido’s emotional and moral weaknesses because she is a woman. Dido demonstrates this weakness by forsaking her country for the passion of a man” (22). Proce also describes the tragic consequence of Dido’s love by saying: “when Dido neglected her country’s needs, it led not only to her own demise through her suicide, but to the demise of Carthage as well” (23).

Thus, the type of love presented in Virgil’s Aeneid is influenced by Phaedrus’s conception of love which views love as the source of greatest benefits. Aeneas is motivated by the love for his people and his commitment to duty. His duty is related to the greatest benefits for his people, so he succeeds at the end, but Dido’s personal love does not bring any great benefits for her people because she is not interested in their benefits, so her love is destined to fail at the end.

Looking at the character of Eneas in the French text makes us relate it to the claim of Phaedrus that love is the source of all virtues and principles of morality. This claim is clear in Eneas’s love for Lavine which makes him a better character. He has all the characteristics of nobility, bravery, and beauty which are due to his love for Lavine. He perceives his courage and strength which make him a hero:

“This land is now much more beautiful to me, and this country pleases me greatly; yesterday became an extremely beautiful day when I stopped beneath the tower where I gained that love. Because of it I am much stronger and more high-spirited, and will very gladly fight for it” (Yunck, p.236).

Thus, Eneas’s love for Lavine makes him a moral person who devotes himself for the sake of his beloved. Turnus also fights to marry Lavine. He is not motivated by his true love for her, so he does not have good characteristics. He loses the battle with Eneas and is defeated by him because he does not love Lavine truly. After he is wounded, Turnus begs for his life, telling Eneas: “Everyone sees well that you have defeated me and conquered all with great strength” (Yunck, p.250). Thus, Turnus is a weak warrior who surrenders at the end because he does not love Lavine truly.

The second to speak in Symposium is Pausanias who rightly criticizes the generalities of Phaedrus’s conception of love. He divides love into two kinds, heavenly and earthly, for he believes that there are two goddesses, the heavenly Aphrodite and the earthly, and that the former has to be given great consideration. His argument is based on the idea that actions are either good or bad according to their performance. Similarly, love is an action which is either good or bad according to its purpose. He declares that foolish love affairs should be forbidden by law for they affect not only the future of the youth but also the whole nation (45-50).

Pausanias refers to the lover’s manner and the attitude of tradition towards it. Social conventions, he says, may allow the lover to do things otherwise unacceptable. Both bodily love and spiritual love are appreciated by Greek traditions, but the love of the soul is always given the first place because it is everlasting and is based on virtue and wisdom (45-50).

Clearly, Pausanias’s conception of love influences the concept of love in both Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas, in which the heavenly or spiritual love is given the priority. This is due to its usefulness for lovers and its eternal characteristics. For example, we notice that the kind of love between Aeneas and Dido in Virgil’s Aeneid is a bodily or earthly love, in that it is based on lust and bodily desires. It is also clear that this kind of love is not idealized, and it is associated with imagery linked to madness, fire, or disease. Love here is a force that brings violence and death to Dido; it makes her lose her self control. Virgil describes Dido’s love as a fire:

The queen, for her part, all that evening ached

With longing that her heart’s blood fed, a wound

Or inward fire eating her away.

The manhood of the man, his pride of birth,

Came home to her time and again; his looks,

His words remained with her to haunt her mind,

And desire for him gave her no rest (IV. 3).

Thus, Dido’s love is strongly based on a desire which is according to Pausanias’s conception an earthly love that is not everlasting. Virgil describes the tragic end of this kind of love by saying:

On Dido in her desolation now

Terror grew at her fate. She prayed for death,

Being heartsick at the mere sight of heaven.

That she more surely would perform the act

And leave the daylight, now she saw before her

A thing one shudders to recall: on altars

Fuming with incense where she placed her gifts,

The holy water blackened, the spilt wine

Turned into blood and mire (IV. 622-630).

Thus, in light of Pausanias’s claim that love is an action that might have a good or bad purpose, we can notice that Dido’s love to Aeneas is bad because of its purpose which is based on fulfilling Dido’s desires with Aeneas. It is not a heavenly love because it is related to lust, not to the soul. Also, it is depicted as a force which distracts its victims from their responsibilities, in which Dido abandons her construction of Carthage and Aeneas must move on because the time he spends with Dido only keeps him from his selfless task of founding an empire. Virgil depicts Dido’s tragedy and its influence on her people when he says:

Amid these words her household people saw her

Crumpled over the steel blade, and the blade

A flush with red blood, drenched her hands. A scream

Pierced the high chambers. Now through the shocked city

Rumor went rioting, as wails and sobs

With women’s outcry echoed in the palace

And heaven’s high air gave back the beating din,

As though all Carthage or old Tyre fell

To storming enemies, and, out of hand,

Flames billowed on the roofs of men and gods (IV. 920-929).

Therefore, it might be concluded that Virgil is highly influenced by Pausanias’s conception of love in terms of the negative and tragic consequences of the earthly love which is not related to the heavenly one.

Looking at the character of Eneas in the French text gives us clear evidence of Pausanias’s influence on it. Eneas’s love for Lavine is a heavenly one, in that it is not based on lust and on desires. It is a fully spiritual love which is also based on the rationality of lovers. Lavine firstly tries to speculate on the meaning of love and knows about the pains of earthly love which is based on lust and desires; she listens to the definition of irrational love from her mother who describes it as:

Love is painted there alone, holding two darts in his right hand and a box in his left;one of the darts is tipped with gold, which causes love, and the other with lead, which makes love alter. Love wounds and pierces often, and is thus painted figuratively to show clearly his nature. The dart shows that he can wound, and the box that he knows how to heal (Yunck, p.213).

Although Lavine’s mother warns her of the pains of love, Lavine wants to try love. She starts loving Eneas’s nobility and bravery. She loves him but she does not act on love, she says about her experience: “Now I know enough about love; my mother spoke the truth indeed; I could not learn about love from anyone else as well as I could from myself” (Yunck, p.217). Similarly, Eneas is motivated by Lavine’s love which changes him to be a noble and brave man. He does not indulge in a romance with her because he wants to know about love. When he knows about love, his character changes a lot, and he exerts his hard efforts to show Lavine that he loves her. Thus, they have both the responsible love and the harmony of their souls because their purpose is to love each other. The success of their love relationship is due to their ability to harmonize both the bodily love with the spiritual love, so “Never did Paris have greater joy when he had Helen in Troy than Eneas had when he had his love in Laurente” (Yunck, p.256). Thus, both Eneas and Lavine are physically and spiritually attracted to each other.

Pausanias’s speech is followed by Eryxiamachus’s idea of love. He insists that there are two kinds of love, divine and earthly, and that they are both found in the human body as healthy and unhealthy elements. He explains that the wise man is the one who can harmonize between these opposite elements. He believes that good and evil are present in the nature of love, and that love is the greatest power by which man can make friends on earth as well as in heaven. He utterly connects man’s earthly love with the bestial desires (53-57).

Eryximachus points out that contradictions such as right and wrong, good and bad, false and true, are found everywhere, not only in the nature of love but also in the nature of seasons and the revolutions of heavenly bodies where hot and cold are discerned. His concept of higher love is based on the harmony between the good and bad elements in the human relationship. This harmony is for the benefit of man on earth and in heaven. The greatest happiness, to Eryximachus, lies in the communion between gods and men. It is very clear that the physician, in his attempt, tries to find a link between earthly and heavenly love. Earthly desires are unhealthy. Man’s eagerness for heavenly communion is healthy. Heavenly love is the source of religion and happiness (53-57).

Eryximachus’s conception of love can be noticed in the love relationship between Aeneas and Dido which fails because it is based on the earthly love represented in Dido’s desires and lust. Adams (2005) comments on the problem of love in Aeneid and compares it to the love relationship in Eneas by saying:

The Eneas composer uses Dido and Lavine to demonstrate two responses to love. Dido cannot manage her desire, she does not know how to use the art of love, she succumbs to lovesickness, and her political status suffers. Lavine does know how to manage love: she manages her own desire and uses the art of love to solicit Eeneas’ desire (p.2).

Thus, the problem in the Aeneid is Dido’s inability to harmonize the earthly love with the heavenly one, whereas in Eneas the love relationship succeeds because it is rational and is not based on desires.

Aristophanes begins his discourse by going back to the origin of man whose nature seemed to be different from the present. Although Aristophanes’s picture of man’s origin is funny, the argument seems to be serious for the interference of gods and the disobedience of man. This is a religious argument which reveals earnestness (58-65).

The above argument is followed by another which speaks of the origin of love as a punishment. For the man who has been cut into two parts has the desire to go back to his earlier form. Aristophanes believes that man’s strong desire to reunite his separate parts and his pursuit of the whole is called love. The process of reproduction seems to be another punishment designed by Zeus (58-65).

In light of the above conception of love, we can say that Dido’s love for Aeneas is a kind of punishment. It is not based on finding her separate part but it is related to her desire to fulfill her sexual need. Additionally, it is clear that Aeneas does not find Dido as his separate part because there is no shared spiritual harmony between them because their love is based on physical attraction. Thus, Dido’s relationship with Aeneas is not a love one. On the contrary, it is a relationship based on fulfilling her sexual need which makes her leave her duty towards her people and be punished at the end.

Agathon’s conception of love is based on two arguments: firstly, the praise of love as a god; and secondly, the gifts bestowed by love upon man. Speaking of the qualities of the god of love, Agathon remarks that love is the fairest because he is the youngest, and youth is always beautiful. He is the tenderest for he walks not on earth but on the hearts and souls of gods and men. He is flexible and dwells among the flowers. Love’s virtue lies in the fact that he suffers nothing and does wrong to nobody. All gods and men serve him by their own free will. He uses no force; he is temperate and just. All pleasures are his servants. He is also the bravest for even the god of war yields to his control (67-72).

In his poetic conclusion, Agathon glorifies the god of love because he is the source of many virtues such as delicacy, tenderness, courtesy, and grace. He speaks of love’s magical power by using magical words to enchant the ears of his listeners. Agathon’s poetic approach can be noticed throughout all the discussion of his concept of love. He connects love with youth and beauty, ignoring the fact that love has nothing to do with either, age or beauty. He thinks that love is a heart’s endeavor as far as there are heart beatings in life. It is the warmth of feelings as long as there are warm affections and flaming passions in the human being. Love is a powerful authority which masters all kinds of hearts within a frame of pains and pleasures.

Agathon’s conception of love has influenced Eneas in the French text, in that we find Eneas’s character differs from that in Aeneid. He has the characteristics of nobility, beauty, and bravery because of the influence of love. Eneas states the influence of love on him and how it makes him braver in his battle with Turnus in order to gain Lavine’s favor. Additionally, the power of love makes Eneas look handsome; it makes him committed to the responsibility of love and to give up his greed and to work to fulfill his destiny which is to gain Lavine’ love, so he does not think about what might happen to him with Turnus; he thinks about gaining Lavine’s love which makes him stronger and more beloved. Eneas states the influence of love on him when he says: “Because of it I am much stronger and more high-spirited, and will very gladly fight for it” (Yunck, p.236). Thus, it is clear that these changes in Eneas’s character are due to what Agathon claims that love is the source of virtues and beauty.

Plato’s conception of love is based on three stages: earthly, heavenly, and absolute. His earlier arguments show his interest in the dialectical method of Socrates, his master. Socrates’s ideology of love is that love is neither mortal (man) nor immortal (god), but he is a great spirit, intermediate between god and man (75-95).

It will be useful in this discussion to summarize Platonic love because of its importance. It has three phases: firstly, the earthly love which is connected with the body; secondly, the spiritual love which is related to heaven; and thirdly, the absolute love which is connected with the mind and the abstract world, the world of ideas in the ideal world. Undoubtedly, the absolute love is the highest and the most beneficial to human beings for it teaches them the real meaning of truth and brings to them all happiness (75-95).

Clearly, Plato’s conception of love has its own influence in both the Aeneid and Eneas. In the Aeneid, love is represented in the form of earthly love which is based on desire. It is not a spiritual and absolute love because it is irrational. Dido’s love for Aeneas cannot be seen in the scope of absolute love because it is not controlled by mind and exists in the ideal world. Additionally, it is not beneficial to both Dido who leaves her duty to construct Carthage and Aeneas who does not proceed to achieve his duty to dominate Italy.

Eneas’s love for Lavine can be seen as a spiritual and partly absolute love. It is based on the rationality of Eneas and Lavine and the harmony between their souls. Also, it brings benefits and happiness for both of them and for their people.

Finally, it can be concluded that Plato’s Symposium has influenced the love conception in both Virgil’s Aeneid and the French text Eneas. The Greek conception of love is based on distinguishing between the earthly love which is based on the human’s desires and the heavenly or spiritual love which is based on the harmony between lovers’ souls. The Greek conception of love criticizes the earthly love negatively because it is unhealthy. This unhealthy love is what we notice in Virgil’s Aeneid, which is not an everlasting love. Additionally, the Greek conception also praises the heavenly and absolute kinds of love which are represented in Eneas’s love to Lavine, which is rational and brings a lot of virtues to the lovers.

References

Adams, T (2005). Violent Passions: Managing Love in the Old French Verse Romance. Studies in Arthurian and Courtly Cultures. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dicknson, Patrick (2002). The Aeneid. Signet Classic.

John Yunck (Trans.) (1974). Eneas: A Twelfth-Century French Romance. Columbia U. Press.

Plato (1951). The Symposium (W. Hamilton, Trans.). Britain: Penguin Books Inc.

Proce, Jennifer (2006). Roman Propaganda Women Admired and Condemned. Symposium, 4, 20-28.

Trentadue, Walter (2006). The Nature of Love Plato’s Symposium. Symposium, 4, 9-12.

篇7

在女性主義者那里,這段話成為《新約》是以父權制方式編撰的一條明證。保羅為女性所定的這條“閉口不言”的戒律,從新約的文本生成上先期將女性推到一個次要的、被控制和被壓迫的地位,而與這段話功用相符的是,實際上歷史中的女性,包括今天的許多女性們,在一種對政治、經濟、文化、社會都“閉口不言”的方式當中完成自己的一個個個體、乃至群體的生命過程,從而給女性要求覺醒的過程更多的阻力——歷史的、宗教的、心理上的……

溫德爾在其《女性主義神學景觀》中闡述說:最初圣經中耶穌的形象是一個女性的關懷者,且這種關懷是建立在平等的基礎上的。而我們在新約當中也能看到耶穌最初以一個尊重甚至偏愛女性的角色出場——他傾聽女性的談話,和她們交談,替她們治病,這一點特別體現在耶穌對抹大拉的態度上邊:他赦免了抹大拉的罪,并使拉撒路死而復生。然而耶穌最終父權制化了,連同《圣經》一道,耶穌的光芒漸漸遮蔽了他身邊的女性,平等的關系不存在了,這些女性形象都成為耶穌背后的潛臺詞。 讓我們來看一看《圣經》當中基督背后的女性形象。在《圣經》的《新約全書》當中,有兩位女性與基督的聯系最為密切,其中一個是圣母瑪利亞,另一個則是抹大拉的瑪利亞。

圣母瑪利亞在圣經中的出現是關鍵的。她正是那個具有上帝的“子宮”的人,是她的存在將天堂與塵世、神與人聯結到了一起。同時她又是耶穌最虔誠的信徒之一,始終以一個信仰者、崇拜者、支持者的身份出現,而且本身又成為被崇拜的對象,成為母性、慈愛與寬容的象征。圣經題材的藝術作品,特別是繪畫和雕塑作品當中,都把圣母瑪利亞描繪為永恒的母親、圣潔的女性,頭上永遠是神圣的光輝。然而,圣經當中的圣母形象是有問題的:首先是童貞女的未婚先孕——后來反叛教會權威的人對此提出疑問并獲得結論:圣母乃是的化身,(很巧合的是圣母與抹大拉的瑪利亞有是同名)。無論是古典繪畫當中的格列柯那近乎放蕩的圣母形象,還是現代主義繪畫當中蒙克那介于邪惡與欲當中的圣母,他們都把對于女性的愛與恨、恐懼與厭惡投射到圣母這一極具代表性的女性形象上,是有其根源的。圣母的形象本身為其埋下了伏筆。而與此同時,即使是耶穌本人,對待瑪利亞的態度也是令人生疑的——耶穌并不承認自己的母親,他所追尋和向往的,戀慕和崇尚的始終是“我在天上的父。”當瑪利亞與耶穌的兄弟想見他時,耶穌說了一段話,這段話在四福音書中都有記載:“誰是我的母親?誰是我的兄弟?”并一手指著門徒說:“凡遵行我天父旨意之人都是我的母親、弟兄、姐妹。”耶穌又曾對瑪利亞說:“你這個婦人,我與你有什么相干?”瑪利亞在這里并沒有得到身份上的確認,她只是耶穌得從降生人間的手段與中介罷了,對于世人或許是神,對于基督來說則只是一個“婦人”,與其他受他醫治、救恕和感化的婦人并沒有什么不同。古典圣經題材藝術當中無可記述的《圣母子像》、《圣母哀悼基督》、《基督下葬》、《將基督從十字架上放下來》……這樣的繪畫與雕塑作品將圣母與基督間的母子關系和情感渲染的溫馨動人,但人們忽略了圣母與基督間是一種單向的關系——就世俗的情感上來說。因此,圣母瑪利亞實際上是被供上祭壇的第一件活物——是為了主的道而犧牲的第一人。

與圣母同名的另一位女性抹大拉也應成為人們閱讀圣經時關注的一個點。在卡扎贊斯基《基督的最后誘惑》中,抹大拉與耶穌成了情人關系,最后竟與耶穌結婚生子。而實際上,在圣經當中抹大拉與耶穌的關系的確也是非常特殊的——耶穌似乎特別眷顧抹大拉。《四福音書》中多次提到抹大拉,僅《約翰福音》中就提到六次,《路加福音》又另外提到一次。抹大拉在圣經當中首先是以形象出現的,后來受耶穌赦免便跟從了耶穌,成為耶穌最堅定的使徒之一。她侍奉耶穌,聽他傳道,更重要的是她目睹基督上十字架,而且成為耶穌復活的見證人。因此在最初的教會和信徒的印象中,抹大拉是作為使徒之一的重要人物,歷史上留下的一些痕跡證明了這一點,一幅《抹大拉任命拉撒路為主教》的畫就是如此。但好景不長,這一形象很快就為男權中心的書寫所篡改:抹大拉成為繼夏娃以來誘惑、原罪與的集結體,之后在文學與造型藝術當中,抹大拉都是邪惡與墮落的女性象征。

篇8

近些年,大量外國影片走入國內市場,國內觀眾英語水平提高促使他們喜歡選擇觀看配有漢語字幕的原聲電影。不同的語言文化障礙制約觀眾對非母語電影的觀看和欣賞,電影字幕翻譯的優略直接影響觀眾對電影的欣賞及對外國文化的了解。電影屬于特殊的文學形式,為觀眾創作、供觀眾欣賞,所以應以觀眾的接受、欣賞、評判為生存的標準。因為這一特殊性,電影字幕的翻譯目標取向應以觀眾接受與否選擇策略。因此,本文以關聯翻譯理論為指導,以電影《星際穿越》為例,探討英漢字幕翻譯策略,以期促進電影字幕翻譯研究。

一、 電影字幕和翻譯

字幕包括語內字幕和語際字幕,前者是指將人物對白轉換成文字顯示在電影屏幕下方適當的位置,是在語言內部的轉換,而后者是指影視原聲保留不變,把源語人物對白、獨白、視覺、聽覺等相關信息轉換成目標語語言并顯示在屏幕下方。本文主要探討語際字幕翻譯。字幕翻譯屬于特殊的語際轉換,是給電影對白提供同步的譯入語說明,影視畫面快速切換,人物對白轉瞬即過,觀眾既要觀看畫面又要快速閱讀對應的字幕譯文內容,字幕翻譯的目的是確保觀眾獲得最大的語境效果,跨越語言文化障礙了解故事發展情節欣賞影片。

字幕翻譯具有鮮明的特點。首先,字幕翻譯會受到時間和空間的限制,因為電影畫面具有瞬間性,隨著畫面的切換轉瞬即逝。其次,電影本身是藝術的體現,它的魅力所在是聲音和圖像的完美結合,字幕出現在屏幕上自然會影響電影畫面的審美效果,所以字幕設計應盡量使畫面美觀,這就要求對字幕翻譯的句式,字數都應照顧電影畫面的美觀。再次,電影是時代的,也是地域的,是一個社會文化的集中體現,譯者考慮到觀眾的期待視野,譯文也具有鮮明的文化地域特征。

二、 關聯翻譯理論

關聯理論是西方近年來具有影響力的一門關于“語言交際”的理論,認為人類的交際行為是“說話人明示、聽話人推理”的過程,說話人認為自己傳遞的信息和聽話人是“關聯”的,聽話人也如此認為,這就是關聯性,再此過程中聽話人根據自己腦中的儲備信息,付出最小的努力獲得最大的語境效果,交際得以成功。Gutt把這一理論用于翻譯學研究領域,認為翻譯是追求最佳關聯的推理過程,它是一種不同語言之間的交際行為,包括原作者與譯者以及譯者與譯文讀者的交際行為。譯者在翻譯過程中充分考慮原文作者的意圖、譯文讀者的期待、接受能力、認知環境和譯作的語境等,使譯文與原文在“釋義上相似”,以達到“最佳關聯”為翻譯目標。[1]

根據關聯理論,聽話者理解話語的標準是在文本話語和自己的認知語境之間找到最佳關聯,即用最小的推理努力,取得最大的語境效果。當然,最佳關聯性是個相對的概念,關聯性與語境效果成正比,與推理努力成反比,可以用這一函數表示:關聯性=語境效果/推理努力。總之,譯者在表達時既要能傳達原文作者的意圖,又要讓讀者花不必要的努力。[2]

在翻譯中,譯文讀者與原作者生活在不同的認知環境中,如果出現認知不同,在理解文本時,譯文讀者無法作出正確的語境假設,要么原文作者的意圖得不到正確的傳遞及獲得正確的語境效果,要么需要讀者花費額外的處理能力,影響理解速度。因此,譯者的任務是通過翻譯策略保證譯文讀者獲得最大的語境效果而又不付出額外的處理努力。

三、 字幕翻譯策略

字幕翻譯與文學翻譯不同,需要考慮時空限制和電影審美效果,通過字幕設備給觀眾傳遞演員對白內容幫助觀眾理解故事情節,因此,譯者需要采取恰當的翻譯策略幫助觀眾深入了解電影的意境和內容,影片也會更容易讓觀眾接受。《星際穿越》是一部充滿超現代主義和夢幻色彩的科幻冒險電影,主要講述了一隊探險家利用他們針對蟲洞的新發現,超越人類對于太空旅行的極限,從而開始在廣袤的宇宙中進行星際航行的故事。該電影構思宏大,既探索人類之間的感情也講述對宇宙的思考,在2015年第41屆美國科幻恐怖電影獎土星獎獲得了最佳科幻電影、最佳導演、最佳男女主角在內的10項提名。這部電影在中國的票房自然也少不了漢語字幕的幫助。

(一)明晰原文隱晦信息確保交際成功

考慮到電影字幕的主要特點以及國內外觀眾不同的認知語境,對于原文對白中的一些隱晦之處譯者需要作明晰化處理。原文作者創作時與讀者具有相同或相似的文化背景知識,經常省略一些文化信息,這并不影響觀眾觀賞影片,但是對于外國觀眾就會造成障礙,于是,譯者這時需要將這些信息明晰化,采用譯入語觀眾的認知環境中“最佳關聯”的表達方式,以幫助譯入語觀眾在有限的時空中欣賞影片,達到成功的交際意圖。有時,譯者甚至可以對原文進行改寫,以確保電影制片人的意圖得到正確的理解。例如,原電影中某些像“NASA”“MRI”詞語都是英語首字母縮略語,譯者在翻譯時考慮到觀眾對這些詞匯沒有相同的認知語境,把他們所指的“美國國家航天局”和“核磁共振儀”這些隱晦信息翻譯出來傳遞給觀眾。

又如,電影中男主人公庫玻到學校與老師面談女兒在學校的問題時,老師對他說,“…and see what ideas you might have for dealing with her behavior on the home front。”這句臺詞中“home front”是指戰爭時的后方群眾,因為在這之前老師提到他女兒與其他同學打仗的事情,所以這里老師把父母比作“戰爭后方的群眾”,考慮到電影字幕翻譯的“瞬間性”及關聯性,譯者直接明了地翻譯成“家長”,易于觀眾欣賞電影,達到成功的交際。

(二)使用通俗易懂的口語可獲得足夠語境效果

影片中庫玻無意闖入美國國家航天局后,問道“So why don't you just let us back up from your fence and we'll be on our way? Huh?”,譯文為“為何不放我們回圍墻那兒? 我們會乖乖離開的,嗯?”英語句式較長,為了便于觀眾迅速理解原文內容,譯者把長句處理為短小句式,再者,“乖乖離開”這樣的易懂的口語化詞語在譯文中應盡量使用。

雖然字幕翻譯要求簡潔明了的語言,讓觀眾可以用最小的努力獲得最大的語境效果,但有時恰當增譯,需要觀眾付出額外的努力獲得更大的努力效果,更好的理解影視內容,從而獲得最佳關聯。例如,基地教授和庫玻談論拯救計劃時提到拉撒路任務,“Oh, that sounds cheerful.―― Lazarus came back from the dead.”譯文為“拉撒路經由耶穌呼喚,死而復生”。譯文中,作者增加“由耶穌呼喚”,雖然觀眾理解話語時多付出了一些努力,但是卻獲得了更大的語境效果,即拉薩路是圣經故事中由耶穌喚醒的人物,象征人類的命運,這里暗喻美國國家航天局的秘密小組承擔了將瀕臨滅絕的人類“死馬當活馬醫”的使命,神也是來自高維空間并掌握高科技的未來人類,他們選了庫玻、他的女兒、教授和科學探險隊員來拯救人類,他們是救贖人類的耶穌。另外,影片中主人公庫玻的女兒叫墨菲,她問起他爸爸為什么給她起這個名字時,提起“墨菲定律”,如果譯者給增加了這條定律的解釋,這條定律的核心是“事情如果有變壞的可能,它總會發生”,通過這一認知語境的補充,觀眾可以推斷出電影制片人的意圖是想通過這一名詞的內涵與這部電影的主旨暗合。

(三)增刪原文以滿足觀眾期待視野

電影字幕翻譯涉及電影制片人、字幕譯者和譯入語觀眾三者的交際活動。首先是電影制片人與字幕譯者之間“推理―明示制片人意圖”的過程,然后是字幕譯者與觀眾之間的“推理―明示”過程。對譯者而言,譯者首先得意識到影片觀眾介入性,以譯語觀眾為先、充分考慮“電影語境”后明示原文本作者意圖為翻譯原則進行翻譯,在采取翻譯策略時充分考慮觀眾的認知能力和期待視野,繼而選擇適當的翻譯策略。

《星際穿越》講述探險家在廣袤的宇宙間進行星際航行的故事,其中涉及許多科學概念名詞,如蟲洞、引力彈力效應、裸奇點和因果律,這些概念對于觀眾來說都是新鮮的名詞。觀眾選擇觀看這部電影,也是出于對這些新鮮高科技知識的期待以及對未來宇宙的想象,所以在翻譯時,譯者為了能使觀眾更好地理解電影內容以及滿足他們的期待,可以適當增加關于這些名詞的解釋說明,幫助觀眾增加已有認知環境中缺少的信息,有助于觀眾欣賞太空畫面、理解影片深意。如,“蟲洞(wormhole)是宇宙中可能存在的連接兩個不同時空的狹窄隧道”,“引力彈力效應”是“指把行星當作引力助推器,利用其重力場給飛行器加速”,“裸奇點”指沒有被視界包圍住的奇點。

結語

總之,電影是國際文化交流的特殊形式,電影字幕譯文對于外國觀眾欣賞電影可以起到關鍵的輔助作用,關聯理論視角使得電影字幕翻譯需要綜合考慮電影制片人的意圖、觀眾的認知環境、觀眾的接受能力、觀眾的期待視野、原文和譯文語境等多種因素采取相應的翻譯策略,對電影字幕翻譯具有很好的指導意義。

參考文獻:

[1]Gutt,Ernst-August.Translation and Relevance:Cognition and Context[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,

篇9

2016年1月10日,英國歌手大衛?鮑依因患癌癥去世,而就在兩天之前,他69歲生日時,剛剛了個人的第25張專輯―《Black Star》(黑星)。很多人還沒有來得及認真聽完這張專輯,就聽到了他的死訊。從推特到微信朋友圈,從梵蒂岡的紅衣主教到身邊貌似與文藝無關的普通青年,無不對大衛?鮑依的去世發出哀悼與致敬的聲音,難怪有評論如此感嘆:有退潮,有新浪潮,還有大衛?鮑依! 天堂里的黑色星星

英國歌手、 詞曲作家、 音樂家、 唱片制作人、 畫家和演員,大衛?鮑依的這些眾多標簽中,他最大的成就應當在音樂方面,他一生發行了25張個人專輯,賣出了1.4億張唱片,96年入選了搖滾名人堂。他的音樂風格涉及影響了朋克、民謠、華麗搖滾、電子、古典、爵士等諸多領域,這些完全無法準確描述他的音樂特質,對于不斷追求創新的他來說,只有“變化”才是標簽,隨著音樂風格不斷變化的,是他創造出的一個個經典的舞臺形象。這些形象隨著大衛?鮑依在音樂領域的走紅,迅速成為引領時尚潮流的風向標,人們期待著“搖滾變色龍”帶來一次又一次的驚喜。

大衛?鮑依50多年的音樂生涯中的專輯封面,都會出現自己不斷變化的形象,直到2013年的《The Next Day》(第二天)沿用了日本攝影師鋤田正義(Masayoshi Sukita)為他1977年《Heroes》(英雄)專輯拍攝的封面,而中間大塊的白色正方形遮擋了他的臉。

唯一一次例外是他2016年的最后一張唱片封面,白底上只有一顆黑色五角星,下方是設計師用五星的局部拼貼出的他的名字。唱片兩天后得知大衛?鮑依死訊后的人們才恍然大悟,《Black Star》是他最后留給人間的死亡藝術品,鮑依用制作這樣一張唱片來向世間道別,他在死亡前3天的《Lazarus》(拉撒路)MV中唱道:“當你仰望時,我已在天堂”。

Star,明星:意指天空中需要仰望的發光星體,這個詞也用來指代對世間影響巨大,有卓越成就的人,而Star這個詞,恰好是大衛?鮑依一生最好的注解。

當明星黯去,我們依然可以從他留在世間的一張張唱片,一首首經典歌曲中,辨析出一顆星體運行過的軌跡,在這些軌跡中,我們輕易就能發現流行音樂巨星大衛?鮑依與太空、星際的交集。 打開宇宙知覺之門

14歲時,大衛?鮑依得到一個薩克斯管作為生日禮物,他興高采烈地高喊:我要成為一個搖滾明星!家人都以為這不過是個玩笑似的戲言,不想此刻正是這個摩羯座的固執熊孩子一生明星路的起點。

大衛?鮑依的明星路并不順暢,他在第二年就遇到了坎坷。他在跟好友打架時誤傷了左眼險些失明,治療4個月后,留下了瞳孔散大的后遺癥。不過也算是因禍得福,這樣的陰陽眼倒成了日后他成為萬人迷的獨特形象標志,傳說這種陰陽眼可以看到常人看不到的超自然現象,只有像耶穌這樣的先知或具有神性的人物才具有的特質。

1967年,大衛?鮑依以一張充滿想象力又有些古怪的民謠風格專輯進入樂壇,市場反響平平。之后他離開音樂,開始修習佛法,鉆研戲劇表演。兩年后,當他帶著一張太空主題的音樂專輯歸來時,迅速成為人人仰望的璀璨明星。這像極了美國布魯斯大師Robert Johnson與魔鬼做交易的傳奇故事,據說他將自己的靈魂和27歲以后的生命賣給魔鬼,幾個月之后就從一個吉他菜鳥變成了讓人沉迷的吉他大師。

大衛?鮑依則像是被外星智慧生物附體,或是接收到了遙遠地外文明傳送過來的信息,在1969年的第二張專輯《Space Oddity》(太空奇遇)中,大衛?鮑依突然打開了宇宙知覺之門,外星靈感和音樂才華大爆發,同名單曲獲得了空前成功,最終在英國排行榜上拿到了第五的成績。

This is Major Tom to Ground Control

這里是湯姆船長,呼叫地面指揮

I'm stepping through the door

我正一步步穿過艙門

And I'm floating in a most peculiar way

以奇妙的方式漂浮著

And the stars look very different today.

今日的星空看起來也如此不同

―《Space Oddity》

大衛?鮑依在地球上遙想自己是宇宙飛船的Tom船長時,唱到:“Planet earth is blue!And there's nothing I can do. ”(星球的地面是藍色的,我對此無能為力) 在40多年后的2013年,加拿大宇航員Chris Hadfield 拿起吉他,真正在太空中翻唱了這首《Space Oddity》:“Planet earth is blue, and there’s nothing left for Chris Hadfield to do.” 他把這一切用攝影機錄制下來,制作成了人類歷史上第一支太空MV,而這首歌作為宇航員在空間站最后一天的紀念顯得無比應景。 華麗巨星的華麗搖滾

在1972年的新專輯《The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars》(奇格星塵的起落與火星蜘蛛)中,大衛?鮑依創造出了雌雄同體的Ziggy Stardust(奇格星塵)形象。舞臺上他染著亮紅色的頭發,畫著的濃妝,身穿夸張艷麗的服飾,這些由日本設計師山本寬齋設計的結合日本傳統元素與未來主義風格的演出服,與大衛?鮑依創造的外星生命體故事在一起融合發酵,孕育出讓人們目瞪口呆進而心悅誠服的時尚流行風暴,這對當時保守的搖滾樂來說是個巨大的沖擊,甚至催生出了一個全新的搖滾樂風格:Glam Rock(華麗搖滾)。

這張專輯中的單曲《starman》(外星人)獲得了空前的成功,木吉他與弦樂背景下,鮑依溫柔的男聲唱出的故事是:奇格星塵對孩子們說,天空中有個外星人starman會來拯救他們。這首歌后來被評為百大經典單曲,2012年倫敦奧運會的開幕式上大衛?鮑依表演了這首歌。最近熱門的科幻電影《火星救援》中,在幾近逼真的火星生活場景下,被困的男主角在向地球總部求救時,這首誕生于40多年前的《Starman》作為背景音樂幾乎被完整播放。 他更想成為一個演員

1976年,熱愛表演的大衛?鮑依主演了他人生中第一部電影《The Man Who Fell to Earth》(天外來客)。這是一部改編自小說的電影,講述一個來自文明高度發達但極度缺水的星球的外星人,來到了地球,試圖用高科技運送水源回母星,但最終被識破受困于地球的故事。大衛?鮑依扮演的外星人利用他所掌握的先進技術創辦了公司,很快就成了百萬富翁。但他在一次意外中眼膜受傷,無法再回到母星,后來他只好成為一個搖滾明星,錄制唱片通過電波將自己的信息傳送回母星。

這簡直是為大衛?鮑依量身定做的電影!

后來大衛?鮑依回憶影片的拍攝過程:“那時我幾乎將全部的自我都投入進去了,我真的做到了。因為我沒什么電影拍攝經驗,只能依靠本能來表演,我感覺自己已經和角色融為一體。”

大衛?鮑依曾說過,相比成為一個搖滾明星,他更想成為一個演員,一個出色的演員。這樣看來,他締造的Ziggy Stardust外星人不過是以華麗搖滾形式演繹的舞臺劇,音樂只是他表演的一部分。

而當他演自己時,大眾都以為他在扮演一個外星人。

“把相當復雜的音樂作品,偽裝成簡單的樣式”

終于,大衛?鮑依厭倦了外星人的角色,Ziggy Stardust宣布死亡。大衛?鮑依開始扮演凡人,一個吸毒過量的瘦白公爵。

毫無征兆的音樂形象轉變從他1975年的新專輯《Young Americans》(年輕美國人)開始,火紅的亂發變成精心梳洗的時髦金發,華麗而新奇的酷炫服裝變成了普通人穿著的西裝革履。當他把音樂轉變成符合美國人口味的靈魂樂后,原來的死忠粉絲開始變節,棄他而去,但與約翰列儂合作的單曲《Fame》(名聲)登上美國排行榜第一名的位置后,為他贏得了更多粉絲的關注。所幸,鮑依的粉絲比列儂的要理性得多,至少不會跑到他面前叫喊:你變了!然后再開上一槍。

形象上做出了迎合大眾審美口味的轉變后,鮑依開始在音樂上進行大膽前衛的藝術探索。他開始在搖滾、朋克的曲風中,融入氛圍感更強的電子樂,這樣的轉變源于其結識了氛圍音樂大師Brian Eno,并跟他一起移居到了柏林,最終他們一道完成了被譽為大衛?鮑依藝術巔峰的“柏林三部曲”。1977年他們在柏林制作了兩張專輯《Low》(低落)和《Heroes》(英雄),并在1979年制作了《Lodger》(房客)。

《Low》專輯的音樂走向變得更為抽象,受極簡主義影響很大,鮑依甚至開始嘗試放棄敘事性的歌詞,讓音樂回歸聲音的本質。同年的《Heroes》專輯被譽為Bowie最偉大的作品,這張初聽起來像是流行搖滾的音樂專輯,被放進了更多的聲音實驗,例如:白噪音發生器、合成器以及日本古箏等等聲音素材的運用,最為難得的是鮑依在音樂可聽性與前衛性方面所做的取舍與平衡,這被音樂評論界稱為音樂折衷主義。

這兩張專輯被當代杰出作曲家菲利普?格拉斯描述為“天才的作品”,他用這兩張專輯的音樂作為基礎,創作了兩部現代交響樂作品:第1交響曲“Low”; 第4交響曲“Heroes”。格拉斯認為鮑依的天才之處在于,“把相當復雜的音樂作品,偽裝成簡單的樣式”。

《Heroes》專輯中的同名單曲也是大衛?鮑依最知名的單曲,歌詞唱的是被柏林墻分隔兩地的戀人,為了可以團聚,決心沖破封鎖的子彈,哪怕在一起只有一天,哪怕粉身碎骨,他們也要成為英雄。這首歌反諷了人類由于意識形態不同造成的隔閡、傷害,由于歌中積極進取、雄心萬丈的勵志曲調,成了很多體育廣告的背景配樂,2012年倫敦奧運會英國運動員入場以及頒獎典禮時播放的都是這首《Heroes》。甚至因為歌中頌揚的敢于沖破人為障礙大膽追求愛情,很多同性戀團體把《Heroes》當做了同性圣歌。

即使大衛?鮑依在音樂生涯的中后期以地球人的形象在世間歌唱,但他依然用天馬行空的想象力創造著不平凡,訴說著對全人類的關愛。

篇10

中圖分類號:J201文獻標識碼:A

Relationship between Painting Styles and the Employment of "Light"

FAN Hong-qu

“光”在西方繪畫中扮演著重要角色,是繪畫藝術發展歷程中一種獨特的審美因素。光線在西方繪畫中體現著繪畫大師的創作意圖,映射著心靈和情感世界。正如阿恩海姆所說:“光線是揭示生活的因素之一,對于人的感官來說是最為輝煌和壯觀的經驗,只有藝術家和詩興偶發的普通人才能在對它進行審美觀察和審美欣賞中,洞見它的美的輝煌。”①

西方油畫中對“光”的表現較多的體現在寫實性繪畫之中。究其原因在于作為西方主要信仰的基督教創世說認為世上的一切都是上帝創造的,而上帝所創的都是真實的,因此西方繪畫相應發展了寫實性,出現了寫實性油畫。作為寫實性油畫,“光”的利用與表現成為重要的繪畫要素。真實再現客觀現實的愿望,必然導致對“光”的表現進行深入的研究,而對光線效果的不同運用,使油畫體現寫實性的同時也產生了不同的表現效果。可以說,光的運用和繪畫風格這兩者是互為因果,密不可分的。縱觀西方美術史,沒有哪種材料媒介,能比油畫更利于表現光影、明暗和質感了。因此,“光”在西方油畫藝術中有著特殊的意義和作用。

一、不同表現形式的“光”傳達的氛圍與意義

繪畫作為視覺藝術的一個重要組成部分,是以光的存在為條件的,“光線照射為一切物體的存在提供了一個共同的基礎”。②達•芬奇也曾經這樣說過:“一切形體都被光與影包圍著。”③“光”的運用是繪畫中一個非常重要的語匯要素。在長期的宗教題材繪畫實踐中,西方繪畫積累了豐富的技術經驗,表現各種光線下場景的技術體系己經非常成熟。文藝復興之后,西方繪畫的題材由單一的宗教畫轉向表現現世人生的廣闊題材,“光”的表現己成為油畫中不可或缺的要素,其表現技巧也成為油畫技巧體系的重要組成部分。在繪畫作品中,不同種類的光源、光照度、光的方向等都會使所描繪物象的影調呈現出截然不同的視覺效果,其自身的調子與形態上的節奏變化也具有獨立的美感。而根據畫面所需要傳達的一種情緒,也可以用適當的光線來表達這種特定的經驗感受,因此不同的光影效果具有不同的意蘊。

1.聚集的光線

所謂聚集的光線,就是像聚光燈一樣僅僅照射畫面中的某一部分物體,其他物體的光則被弱化。在油畫作品中,使用聚焦的光線有利于揭示畫面的主題,尤其是大場面的歷史畫和宗教畫。強烈的光線照明,可以使畫面構圖緊湊、看起來清晰、視點鮮明。

17世紀意大利文藝復興后期的重要畫家卡拉瓦喬的作品里,常使用戲劇般的光線,利用集中的光照射,使人物在暗色空間中分外突出,并且恰到好處地與環境相銜接。他的晚期作品《圣母之死》中,表現手法取側光照射,把人物安排在強烈的光影變化之間,形成具有戲劇性但又非常真實的效果。

倫勃朗也善于強調光影的戲劇化視覺效果。他把光線集中在他想表現的人物身上其余的部分則隱沒在半透明的陰影中,這種技法在他的群像別突出。用聚光的手法在他的油畫《夜巡》中顯得最為成熟。聚光法可以使主要人物十分突出,并隨畫家的需要任意安排,使畫家在光的運用中獲得自由的表現。

拉圖爾也是美術史上一位擅長描繪光線與陰影的大師。他用燭光來組織畫面,表現以燭光為中心的聚集光,使得畫面流露出一股神秘動人的氣氛。《油燈前的抹大拉》是其代表作品,那種樸實無華、集中凝練、簡潔概括的形式在當時的“古典繪畫”中極其少見。

2.散射的光線

達•芬奇曾這樣描述散射光:“繪畫藝術家首當其沖的第一個志愿就是想在平光的表面上,把一個物體表現的有起伏的、甚至和平面分離開來,誰能在這一藝術事業中強于他人就會獲得別人更多贊許,這樣的成就不依靠光和影的配置是不能獲得的。”④荷蘭小畫派的代表畫家維米爾就擅長于運用散射的光線。在他的畫面上往往有一扇敞開的窗子,明亮的陽光由窗外漫射進來,使室內充滿了輕柔和煦的自然光,畫面生動傳神,充滿寧靜、安適的生活氣息。在《窗前讀信的婦人》中,整個房間沐浴在溫暖的陽光里,靜謐得如同輕柔悠揚的音樂,涌進窗戶的光線使室內的空間真實可信,柔和與精確、堅實而穩定的效果令人難以忘懷,分布在物體上的光線,更是有效地傳達了它們的質感與量感。

3.側、逆的光線

光線對于空間的造型主要是通過側光、側逆光的光線形態,明暗間隔的處理的手法來完成的。側光、側逆光的光線形態有利于通過明暗影調的變化表達物體的體積感,勾勒出物體的輪廓,呈現一種趣味的抽象概括,在空間中形成多層景物,將視覺張力的效果發揮到極致。

用逆光探尋物象的光色的千變萬化,可以增強藝術的表現力。在勃納爾所描繪的《逆光下的裸女》中,在這幅充滿陽光和空氣的室內,裸女逆光而立,豐滿健康的身體反射出耀眼的色彩。畫家運用類似點彩的碎小筆觸,不畫陰影但使整個畫面充滿光感和鮮亮的色彩感,光與色互相融合后,交織成一曲富有韻律的合奏。

總體說來,不同的用光方式可以導致不同的畫面效果,從而也會影響觀者的視覺心理。聚焦的光線用來組織人物繁多的大場面可以起到突出重點人物形象的作用;漫射的光照則使畫面豐富,有撫慰人心靈的感覺;逆光的運用則可以增強藝術的表現力,具有震撼人心的視覺效果。藝術家就是利用這些特征使光線成為表現性的視覺語言。對光線的適當運用或強調,對畫面語言的組織和表現都會起到積極的作用。光線作為油畫的視覺表現語言,表現形式逐漸的豐富起來,為藝術家開始研究光學,并將其成為畫面的“主角”,奠定了基礎。

二、各繪畫流派對“光”的運用以及“光”的衍變

自文藝復興以來至19世紀末印象派的出現,“光學的真實感”始終是大部分西方畫家追求的目標,藝術家們不斷探索和研究光學、色彩學,使光和色的油畫視覺表現語言逐步獲得了完善。從新古典主義到后印象主義,“光”的表現經歷了繼承――革命一一顛覆的發展過程,實際上也是從平凡到輝煌直到沒落的三個階段。

1.繼承傳統的新古典主義――安格爾

安格爾是新古典主義的代表,他指出,“一幅畫的光應該投射和集中在畫的全局中最強烈的地方,這是為使觀者的視線引向這個部分。”⑤人物也是這樣,其實,明暗層次應首先從人物開始。安格爾喜歡把視點放在對象的受光部,背景幽暗,因此人物顯得尤為突出。雕刻般的造型是安格爾所追求的,如《俄狄甫斯與斯芬克斯》主要的光源完全是在主要人物的身上。這種用光方式完全繼承了卡拉瓦喬、倫勃朗等藝術家的傳統的表現光的方式。

在安格爾的作品中,對光線的運用是為了強調出主要的人物形象,這時的光線是十分主觀的。

2.激情的浪漫主義――德拉克洛瓦

與安格爾持相反藝術觀點的德拉克洛瓦重視光線和色彩對比的視覺效果,重視想象和幻想。對于浪漫主義,德拉克洛瓦把它解釋為“意味著自由地表達個人的感受,不墨守成規,不喜歡教條。”對于作品中光的運用,也是如此⑥。

德拉克洛瓦在光線的表現上,受到了英國畫家康斯太布爾《干草車》、《英國的運河》等幾幅風景畫的啟發,在畫《希阿島的屠殺》的天空時,強調了光的散漫效果,以突出憂郁、悲涼的氣氛。而在《但丁之筏》一畫中,畫家則大膽運用光影與明暗的烘托,對比強烈,畫家在這件作品中沖破了新古典派的戒律,把光線與色彩作為審美感染力的主要手段,使情感表現的主題獲得了極大的成功。

3.重視自然光的印象派――莫奈

印象派繪畫的最重要成就,就是發現和表現戶外自然光下的色彩,捕捉大自然的瞬間變化,力求突出畫面的偶然性,增加畫面的生動和生活氣氛,凸顯對內心主觀意象的表達。印象派繪畫在光、色中求形,以光與色表現意和美,力圖捕捉物體在特定時間內自然呈現的瞬息色彩。“印象派”沿襲的依然是西方長達數百年的具象寫實傳統,但是印象主義畫家在繪畫中表達的是眼見的真實,是對真實物象色彩、光感的追求,對“固有色”觀念的顛覆和對物象堅實輪廓的漠視。

印象派的杰出代表莫奈的繪畫便忽視物象輪廓的寫實,側重用光線和色彩來表現瞬間的印象,把精力放在捕捉視覺印象的光色變化上,忠實地傳達瞬間的視覺感覺。他流連于波光水影,隨機地捕捉光色的變化。他喜歡現場作畫,大自然色彩氛圍、作畫時間的短促及他所追求光斑閃耀的藝術效果,使他的畫在色彩和筆觸上顯得自然而生動。在《圣拉撒路火車站》、《1878年6月30日,圣德尼街的節日》等畫中,都可看到莫奈作品中所表現隨光線即逝的豐富色彩變化和讓人心潮起伏的繪畫筆觸。光使畫幅變得栩栩如生,色彩是在空氣中顫動的五顏六色,光在他的畫面中仿佛有了魔法。

莫奈一生把主要精力放在捕捉瞬間視覺印象的光色變化上,始終堅持探索和研究光線的躍動投射在景物上所產生的微妙的變化,追求獨特的色彩藝術效果。

4.顛覆傳統的后印象主義――梵高

雖然后印象主義的畫家都曾不同程度地追隨過印象主義,但后來都不滿于印象主義的過分強調客觀表現、片面追求外光及色彩,他們主張重新重視美術中形的觀念,重視作者的主觀個性,注意在作品中表現作者的主觀感情和情緒,注意形式的表現力。光的描繪在后印象主義畫家的作品中就不再占有主導地位,光的出現不再是自然的光線,而只是為他們作品中所要表達的感情和情緒服務的,所以說光的表現在后印象主義時期油畫中的地位發生了巨大的變化。由此,“光”作為光線在現代繪畫,尤其是抽象主義繪畫中消失了。

對藝術的熱烈追求聞名遐邇的傳奇式人物凡高,有著獨樹一幟的畫風和荒誕不經的行為。梵高在畫他的《向日葵》時曾說過“這是愛的最強光!”。⑦在他的畫中,濃重響亮的色彩對比往往達到極限。他那富于激情的旋轉、躍動的筆觸,光與色的緊密糅合,使他的麥田、柏樹、星空等,有如火焰般升騰、顫動,震撼觀者的心靈。可以這樣說,光與色彩在凡高的畫里被發揮到了超越自然的極致。

在油畫藝術的發展史上,追求視覺上的真實感,通過對光照現象的模擬實現對客觀自然的再現,曾是幾代西方藝術家共同追求的目標。因此如何運用光線照射規律來創造更加真實的視覺圖像作為油畫藝術的重要課題而被藝術家所重視。對于他們而言,光線是獲得真實感必不可少的媒介,因此,光在西方油畫藝術中占有非常特殊而且重要的地位。

三、“光”對塑造形象具有特殊作用

光線作為重要的造型元素對油畫的表現風格和形式有著不容忽視的影響。從歷史上來看,文藝復興時期的油畫最為注重光的塑造形體作用。這是因為文藝復興時期的藝術家普遍追求具有雕塑感的繪畫造型。在他們眼里,立體感在繪畫中的作用遠比色彩重要。達•芬奇認為,物體的形狀只有依靠光和影才能呈現出來,利用明暗使平面呈現出浮雕感,是繪畫最神奇的一面。他把浮雕感 (立體感)比作繪畫的靈魂,是繪畫中最重要的元素。

利用光線來塑造形象離不開對空間的營造。光線的不均勻照射可以提高物體空間的深度,使人能夠強烈的感覺到物體的空間特征。正是利用了光線照射事物所產生的明暗變化能夠使視覺產生空間知覺的這一特征,繪畫才能夠表現出真實的視覺圖像。關于光在塑造空間時起到的作用,貢布里希曾在對意大利畫家弗蘭西斯加的評價中有過如下的論述:“弗蘭西斯加在繪畫中完完全全掌握了透視原理。……不過,除了有關幾何學方面的種種處理繪畫空間的技術之外,他還加進了一種同樣重要的新技術:即對光的處理。中世紀的美學家對光很少注意。他們所繪的扁平形體并不投射陰影。馬薩喬在這一方面也是一位先驅。……在他的作品中,形體是實在的、有深度的,并且在光和影的有力烘托下出現。但要說到能清楚地意識到陰影所能帶來的巨大新作用,而且對透視有同樣的重大作用,因為它能制造出深度這一幻象。”⑧

因此,用光來處理塑造形象的方法,作為西方寫實油畫造型的基本方法一直被后世的藝術家所借鑒,對整個繪畫藝術有著重要的影響和作用。

四、“光”對情感表達具有特殊意義

光線對于繪畫不僅是再現視覺圖像的手段,更多的時候被藝術家用來表現內心的情感和揭示作品的主題。德拉克羅瓦曾說:“繪畫引起完全特殊的感情,那是任何其他藝術不可能引起的。這種印象,是由色彩的一定的安排,光與影的變化,總之一句話,是那種可稱之為繪畫的音樂的東西……。”⑨繪畫的精髓在于通過畫面來傳達某種情感的意蘊,就光線在油畫中的應用來看,藝術家對光線的選擇和表現常常會導致微妙的畫面構成和強烈的精神指向,成為畫家表達主觀情感和心聲的藝術語言。

運用光影的效果來營造畫面的氣氛,是通常的藝術處理手法。光影是油畫藝術的靈魂,并直接參與了繪畫的構思構圖、形象造型、氣氛烘托等藝術創作的全部過程,它能制造各種各樣的氣氛以及變化,從而引導人們進入“情節”。畫家根據作品的特點和功能要求進行構思,發揮想象力,創造性地使用光線、色彩、亮度和反差,大膽地在光線造型中突破用光上的概念化和格式化,通過合理的布光構思、設計,創造性地再現氣氛,喚起人們對畫中所表達的意境的聯想。

此外,光影還可作為“角色”進行塑造,其藝術效果取決于藝術家能否從中發現視覺美點以及處理它們的能力。從而使觀眾看到藝術家曾經看到過的東西,激發和藝術家同樣的情感。好的光影效果來自于創作者的精心構思與設計,來自于對眾多一般的和復雜的光線現象中的選擇和提煉,光線效果越精煉、越抽象、越典型,就越有視覺美感。光影是油畫藝術中的一種重要形式,光影的運用,使作品進人更高的思維境界,這是人們對審美的高層次要求,它使繪畫的語言更為豐富,使繪畫的審美特征更趨內涵化。

在藝術作品中,適當而巧妙的光影處理,可以簡潔明快地傳達畫面形象中細膩幽微的心理意蘊,表現情感情緒及其深層心理的空間深度,從而產生出更多震撼人心的藝術精品。

五、結語

總而言之,油畫藝術的傳統決定著“光”的表現和運用在油畫中具有著重要的作用,這滲透在油畫藝術的方方面面。從古典繪畫到后印象主義繪畫的20世紀繪畫,光線在繪畫作品中無不呈現出永恒的面貌。作為表達個體畫家心緒的載體――繪畫作品上的用光處理,不僅能體現畫家深層面的修養,也是形成畫家卓然獨立繪畫風格的不可或缺的重要元素之一。(責任編輯:高笑云)

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